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Abstract

Amidst escalating climate impacts and continued emissions, numerous case studies have examined how cities can mitigate and adapt to climate change. Yet, systematic cross-sectoral and cross-impact assessments that identify which climate actions are relevant to which types of cities remain limited. This study addresses this gap for Europe through a data-driven analysis of European cities, categorising them into four distinct city types (Shrinking cities, Growing cities, Established cities, Metropolises), quantitatively analysing their need and capacity to act on climate change, and providing a systematic overview of effective climate action strategies for each of these clusters. Based on harmonised data for all 1263 cities in Europe, we identify sectoral and climate impact hotspots requiring concerted climate action across the four city types. These include reducing building- and transport-related greenhouse gas emissions in Metropolises and Established cities, heat and drought risk in Growing cities, and flood risk in Shrinking cities. Drawing on the existing case study literature comprising 1613 climate action assessments, we provide context-specific recommendations for addressing these climate hotspots and unlocking co-benefits by overcoming reported implementation challenges such as limited finance, local governance capacity, behavioural inertia and distributional conflicts. We further outline research gaps for more actionable knowledge on urban climate mitigation and adaptation with regards to scope of cities covered, kinds of actions assessed, and quality of evaluations performed. Together, these insights can inform cross-city learning and targeted policy and investment prioritisation across urban planning, public services, technology deployment or governance capacity in line with local contexts.